Tourist product supply factors. Supply in the tourist market Tourist demand and supply

Tourism and recreation

The offer of a tourism product depends on many factors: the number of tourist suppliers of catering enterprises, etc. The components of the supply of a certain tourist region can be divided into 4 main categories: 1 natural resources 2 infrastructure 3 tourism infrastructure which includes: tour operators and travel agents of the catering enterprise and trade, motor transport enterprises, etc. The composition of the material and technical base of tourism includes: tour operators and travel agents ...

Tourist demand and supply.

Economists define demand as the quantity of any goods and services that people are willing and actually able to purchase at any given price in the set of possible prices in a given period of time.

Demand to travel to a certain tourist region (D) is a function of a person's propensity to travel (how much a person desires to travel, to which regions, and what types of travel they prefer) and the corresponding resistance value of the connection between the starting point of the trip and the destination: D = f (inclination, resistance).Economic distanceis related to the time and monetary costs of traveling from the starting point to the Ha-value and back. The greater the economic distance, the higher the resistance (the desire of a person to stay at home) and the lower the demand. Conversely, it follows that if the travel time between the starting point and the destination and the cost of this journey are reduced, then demand will increase. So, a surge in demand occurred with the advent of large aircraft designed for transatlantic flights.

cultural distance- the degree of difference between the culture of the region from which the tourist came and the culture of the host region. The general trend is that the greater the cultural differences, the greater the resistance. But in some cases, the relationship can be reversed, for example, the demand for exotic tourism has recently increased. In addition, the relative attractiveness this direction will depend on the time of the year for which the vacation is planned. For a ski resort, for example, demand will be at its highest during the winter months. Resistance is minimal this season. A variety of factors influence the magnitude of demand, its structure and dynamics: the number of buyers of a tourist product, their cash income, estimates of future income prospects

Tourist offer- this is an ideal readiness and a real opportunity for a commodity producer to produce and put on the market a certain amount of tourist goods. The offer of a tourist product depends on many factors: the number of tourist suppliers (accommodation, catering, entertainment, etc.); the number of firms-sellers; the level of efficiency in the production of tourist goods and services; the level of scientific and technological progress; tax systems; prices for factors of production; estimates of prospects for demand and future income.

The supply components of a particular tourism region can be broken down into 4 main categories:

1) natural resources

2) infrastructure

3) the material and technical base of tourism, which includes: tour operators and travel agents, accommodation enterprises, catering and trade enterprises, motor transport enterprises, etc.

4) cultural hospitality resources

The natural resources of each tourism region available for tourism use form the basis of the offer. The basic elements of this category include air and climate, physical features of the area (topography), flora, fauna, water resources, beaches, natural monuments, etc. The quality of natural resources must be maintained in order to maintain demand. In essence, tourism is very sensitive to the quality of the use of natural resources.

Infrastructure is underground and above ground service facilities, including: water supply, sewerage, gas pipeline, communication system, as well as other service facilities, such as highways, airports, roads, railways, parking lots, parking lots, ports, stations, etc. Infrastructure is very important for the successful development of tourism.

The material and technical base of tourism is the basis for the development of organized tourism, as it creates all the necessary conditions for providing tourists with a full range of services (accommodation, meals, transportation, excursions, etc.) - The composition of the material and technical base of tourism includes: tour operators and travel agents, accommodation enterprises, catering and trade enterprises, motor transport enterprises, excursion bureaus, etc. According to economic elements, the objects of the material and technical base are divided into fixed assets and circulating production assets (low-value and fast-wearing items).

By type of property, the objects of the material and technical base are divided into their own (belonging to this tourist economic entity), rented by this entity from legal entities(for example, renting places in municipal hotels) and rented from individuals. One of the main and most significant elements of the material and technical base of tourism are accommodation facilities.

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Ticket number 92 Demand and supply in the tourist market, the mechanism of functioning of the tourist market.

The concept of demand. Demand factors in the tourism market. Elasticity of tourist demand. Seasonality of demand in tourism. The concept of a proposal. Supply factors in the tourism market. The mechanism of functioning of the tourist market. Tourist circuit. Tourism market capacity.

There are many approaches to determining the conjuncture of the tourist market: for example, departmental (the ratio of entry and exit), intracompany. But the theoretical basis for the functioning of the market is to determine the ratio of supply and demand for tourist services. In this regard, we will consider separately each of these categories. As a criterion for evaluating this ratio, we will choose the categories of price and quality of tourist services.

The law of supply and demand establishes a causal relationship between the three

Demand is the ideal need and the real ability of the buyer to buy a certain amount of a given product.

Demand and consumption are not identical categories. They differ qualitatively and quantitatively.

Demand acts as a category of the market and a stage of reproduction in the form of the exchange of goods. Consumption - only as a stage (and final) of the reproductive process. The quantitative difference is that consumption is not always related to demand, since the needs of the population for tourism services are not always satisfied through the market. A significant part of the population's needs for recreation is met through dacha recreation, amateur sports tours, trips to relatives in the village, etc.

Demand and consumption do not coincide in time and space. Consumption over time, as a rule, lags behind demand, since a tourist package is first bought (demanded for it), and then tourist services are already consumed. Moreover, tourism services can be consumed long time(e.g. medical or educational tours) or change their value over time (traveler's vouchers, credit cards).

In space, demand and consumption may also not coincide. The demand for holidays by the sea is presented by the majority of the population, but residents of coastal areas can most often satisfy it, with the same income.

The factors that cause demand for tourist services include: the number of buyers, their cash income, assessment of their prospects, the prestige of tourist recreation, advertising, availability of free time, prices for tours, etc. With a certain level of income and free time, it is the price that determines the real the opportunity to purchase one or another tour. The nature of the relationship between price and tour duration is reflected in the law of demand.

The essence of the law of demand is that an increase in the market price of tourist services, ceteris paribus, reduces the volume of demand, and vice versa, a decrease in the market price increases the amount of demand.

Price elasticity of demand shows how much the demand for a given type of tourist service changes if its price changes by 1%. If this indicator is greater than 1, then demand for price will be elastic; if this indicator is less than 1, then demand for price will be inelastic.

The elasticity coefficient is calculated as the ratio of the increase in the volume of tourist services to the fall in their prices.

The law of supply and demand largely determines the behavior of the consumer in the market of travel services. This behavior can be represented in two ways.

The first is based on the fact that each consumer is able to quantify the volume of offered tourist services (days of rest), based on their income. Theoretically, this is called marginal utility.

The second approach is based on consumer choice. As a rule, the choice is made from two parameters, for example, the length of stay and the cost of living. If the cost of living in

bungalow is $10 per day, then if you have $100 intended for accommodation, a tourist can stay 10 days. So, it is necessary to find the optimal solution in terms of the volume of tourist services.

(length of stay), based on the criterion of optimality - the availability of financial resources. With a minimum marginal demand for a stay of 5 days, the cost of living would be $20.

Consumer response is greatly influenced by changes in income. The dependence of the quality of consumed goods and services on income growth was reflected in his studies by the German statistician Ernst Engel.

Engel's Law states that as income increases, the share spent on essential goods decreases, while the share of spending on luxuries and spiritual development increases.

In connection with the change in the impact of income on the behavior of consumers of tourism services (following Engel's law), it is customary to distinguish three groups of them (however, as we will see below, the division of consumers into three groups is not typical for the tourism sector).

1st group - low-income consumers (up to $50 per month) who can satisfy their

needs for dacha recreation, short tours, sports and recreational activities;

2nd group - consumers with an average income level (up to $400 per month) can make trips to the sea, including outbound tours, explore educational routes to Western Europe;

3rd group - high-income consumers (from $800 and above) can carry out adventure, exotic and business tours.

With an increase in income, the demand for services of the 1st group first increases, then stabilizes, and then begins to decline; the demand of the 2nd group first grows, then stabilizes, and then starts growing again; the demand of the 3rd group first rises steeply, then stabilizes. A graphical representation of such dependencies is commonly called Engel curves.

When analyzing consumer behavior, the “Giffen effect” should also be taken into account. The English economist and statistician Robert Giffen drew attention to a paradoxical phenomenon: during a bad potato harvest in Ireland, potato prices rose, and demand for potatoes increased. The situation in which a decrease in price leads to a decrease in demand, and an increase in price increases the demand for a product or service, is commonly called the "Giffen effect", and the product or service itself is of poor quality.

Giffen's product (service).

In tourism, the “Giffen service” can be called trips of Russian citizens to summer cottages, when prices for domestic railway tickets are growing, and the cost of outbound tours is periodically reduced.

Analysis of consumer behavior shows that in addition to income and various emergency circumstances, it is also influenced by the tastes and preferences of other consumers. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish three effects.

The first is the effect of joining the majority. These include once fashionable trips to Turkey, the Czech Republic. France, Italy.

The second is the snob effect. In this case, the response to fashion has the opposite direction. The snob will never talk about the beauties of the Louvre and the greatness of the Colosseum, he will talk about the slums of Paris and Rome and how hard it is for working people in the capitalist world.

The third is the effect of prestigious consumption. The consumer purchases goods (services) in order to impress others. This prestigious or conspicuous consumption in literature is associated with the theory of the leisure class put forward by Thorstein Veblen. The category of such consumers of tourist services cares about their status, and not about the real usefulness of services.

So, the demand for tourism is formed by heterogeneous groups of people seeking to travel.

and driven by the same motives. Therefore, marketing and promotion of tourist services should be differentiated in the sense that efforts should be concentrated and directed to potential tourist groups, i.e. segments of the general tourist market. Segmentation of the overall tourism market into homogeneous groups of tourists is an absolutely essential step in the marketing and promotion planning process.

There are three groups of criteria for segmentation of services for tourism:

Socio-demographic characteristics: age, gender, marital status, social status, education, family net income, permanent residence, religion;

Behavior: purpose and reasons for travel, transport used, travel distance and travel payment;

Motivation and decision-making process: preparatory stages to travel, factors

influencing decision making.

Thus, it will be possible to satisfy any needs of people depending on age and

Experts of the World Tourism Organization, based on a combination of two characteristics (income level and education level), distinguish four segments of the tourism market.

The first segment includes persons with an average or even relatively low income.

The main purpose of their trip is to rest on the sea, while the purpose of their trip and the place in

mainly determined by the price level. This segment of the tourist market is not characterized by the desire for a sharp change in impressions. This category of tourists does not have much money, is sensitive to the prices of services and at the same time is extremely demanding on their quality. The main principle is to get everything in full. Staying in low-class hotels, they at the same time show a very great interest in various kinds of entertainment, nightclubs, bars, discos. Despite the fact that the educational goal is not the main motive of their trip, they still may show interest in various excursions that could make their trip more prestigious when talking about it to friends, relatives and acquaintances. In the international tourist exchange, this segment of the tourist market is the most numerous, which forms the basis of the mass tourist approach. These are travels over short distances, mainly to the nearest sea.

The second segment of the tourism market includes people with incomes above the average. These tourists are most often higher education, sometimes secondary special. The main goal for them is relaxation combined with the cognitive process. Since these tourists are dominated by a cognitive motive, they can put up with the lack of comfort when visiting a region of interest to them if there is no other opportunity to visit this region. However, this does not mean at all that tourists in this segment are not at all demanding on the quality of accommodation and food.

The third segment is formed by persons with a high level of income. Having mostly higher education,

they are interested in educational trips, striving for a change of impressions. There are two age categories: middle and "third" ages. If people of the "third" age travel in groups, then middle-aged people prefer individual trips or trips in small groups of friends and acquaintances. For this segment, long-distance travel lasting 2-3 weeks is of interest. Tourists are interested in souvenirs, and these can be expensive items, indicating that people have made a long exotic journey.

The fourth segment is made up of highly educated people who are interested in studying the nature, culture, way of life, mores and customs of other peoples. It is formed by people of different age categories and with different income levels, but they are ready to spend significant funds on travel, often at the expense of savings. This segment of the market is not very numerous, but it has grown significantly in recent years and continues to grow.

Thus, by carrying out segmentation, travel companies identify groups of customers united according to one or another feature. Each of the market segments should correspond to a specific tourist offer. This approach allows not only to meet the existing demand, but also to form it.

Presented in table. 3.4 groups of consumers of tourist services are characterized by different

income level of consumer demand.

Noteworthy is the relatively low proportion of consumers in the first group. This is largely due to the insufficient level of supply of social types of tourism. At the same time, the share of total consumer demand (number of consumers) for this group can be much larger (about 5-7 times).

The second group of consumers of tourist services is characterized by approximately the same qualitative values. It is also advisable to expand the range of services offered.

The third group is the most stable, based on the income level of consumers and their share in the group.

Characterizing the fourth group, it should be noted that with the development of the tourism sector, the expansion of demand for domestic and social tours, a relative decrease in consumers in this group is possible.

The fifth group - consumers of expensive tours - seems to be stable in terms of the level of consumer services.

There may be minor fluctuations in dynamics associated with various social and

economic factors.

The offer is an ideal readiness and a real opportunity for a commodity producer to produce and put on the market a certain amount of a given product. At the same time, supply is not identical with production and differs from it quantitatively.

Production specific tourist route, for example, the number of beds in a hotel may be greater than the supply on the market, since part of the accommodation facilities is intended for the reserve fund, local consumption, etc. At the same time, the supply of a tourist product on the domestic market of the country may be greater than its production the whole country, if we are talking about entry tours.

The supply does not coincide with the production of tourism services in time and space. Production precedes supply in time, since each tourism product must first be produced or developed and only then introduced to the market. Regional differences are also quite conditioned if travel services are prepared for sale on the territory of the Golden Ring of Russia, and are sold in the form of vouchers in Moscow.

The supply of travel services, as well as the demand for them, depends on many factors. These include: number

sellers - travel agencies, the level of production efficiency (service, the introduction of innovative processes, the state of recreational resources, prices for production factors, taxation, assessment of future income, etc.). However, in this case, the volume of proposals for each tour operator depends mainly on the price.

There is a direct relationship between the market price of tourist services and the quantity that organizers wish to offer consumers, the nature of which is expressed by the law of supply.

The essence of the law of supply is that the supply of tourist services increases when the price increases and decreases when it decreases.

Similarly, the price elasticity of supply is determined, which characterizes the degree of change in the volume of supply depending on the change in price.

The law of supply and demand determines the behavior of the firm in the tourist market. Theoretical basis production and supply of tourist services is the assessment of factors of production. The creators of the theory of factors of production (Jean Baptiste Sey and Frederic Bastiat) put forward the concept of creating value by land, labor, capital. In accordance with this, in relation to tourism, the income of each factor, namely: tourist rent, salary, interest on capital, was considered to be proportional to the production contribution of each factor to the creation of the total value of the tourism product.

In real life, factor income in the total product can have a marginal character.

Marginal income on the land factor can be expressed as the cost of recreational tours minus land rent and business expenses. Marginal income on the capital factor is equal to the cost of living minus the capital and operating costs of maintaining accommodation facilities and equipment. These types of marginal income are formalized, each separately, only if all other factors of production remain unchanged.

The ability to adapt and quickly change tourism revenue is limited

the following reasons:

Tourism production is capital intensive. It depends on qualified and experienced

personnel;

The production of tourism services cannot outpace demand;

A large investment of capital per unit of output (for example, a hotel room, a seat on an airplane, etc.) demonstrates that costs are largely fixed;

Fixed location and limited conversion options also

characterize the inelasticity of supply.

Thus, the supply depends on price and income, seasonal fluctuations, external, often unforeseen, factors.

The dependence of supply and demand on the price is presented graphically in fig. 3.1. The demand curve is descending, while the supply curve is ascending. The point of intersection of these curves corresponds to the balancing market price, in this case one type of tourist services.

In the economic literature, such an equilibrium is called a partial market equilibrium, and the price at which it occurs is the equilibrium price.

Two concepts should be distinguished - a change in the volume of supply (demand) and a change in the supply (demand) itself.

In the first case, only the price changes, all other factors are unchanged, and therefore a change in the volume of supply or demand reflects "sliding along the demand curve." In the second case, the nature of the indicator itself changes, i.e., the entire supply or demand curve shifts to the right or left.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the price, as a focus, concentrates the interests of all business entities. And if certain types tourism activities are currently ineffective, then due to price regulation, the movement of production resources, it is possible to achieve a redistribution of income in the right direction.

Ticket number 93 Typology of entrepreneurial activity in the field of tourism, organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurial activity in the field of tourism.

Features of entrepreneurship as a form of economic activity. Subjects and objects of entrepreneurial activity. Typology of entrepreneurial activity in the field of tourism. State and private enterprise. Organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurial activity in the field of tourism

The offer is a set of tourist products with certain prices that are on the tourist market and which producers-sellers can or intend to sell. The proposal characterizes the economic situation in the tourism market on the part of manufacturers-sellers.

However, if the demand schedule establishes the relationship between prices and the amount of tourism product that tourists are willing to buy, then the supply schedule establishes the relationship between market prices and the amount of tourism product that tourism product producers are willing to produce and sell. Unlike the demand curve, the supply curve usually slopes upward to the right. The existing relationship between supply and price is expressed in the law of supply, the meaning of which is that the volume of supply of tourism products increases with an increase in price and decreases with its decrease.

By analogy with demand, one should distinguish between a change in supply and a change in the volume of supply. The volume of supply in the tourism market changes when only the price of the tourism product changes. A change in supply occurs when factors that were previously considered constant change.

The change in supply itself is reflected by a shift to the left or right of the supply curve itself, depending on supply factors, which include: changes in prices for tourist resources; changes in taxes, excises and subsidies; price changes for other tourism products; change in expectation; change in the number of suppliers of tourism products. However, besides the price, there are other factors that influence the offer. As a result of their impact, there is a shift along the supply curve itself. This means not a change in the volume of production, but a change in the nature of supply. For example, if any appears new Internet technology that will produce more tourism products at the same cost. Then a shift in the supply curve will mean that at each price the tour operator will offer more of the tourist product.

In order to establish how a competitive price is determined in the tourism market, it is necessary to combine demand analysis with supply analysis, to combine supply and demand schedules. The balancing market price is at the point where demand equals supply.

The mechanism of formation of the equilibrium price in the concept of A. Marshall.

When the demand price is equal to the supply price, the volume of production shows no tendency either to increase or to decrease; there is balance. When supply and demand are in equilibrium, the quantity of a commodity produced per unit time OH can be called the equilibrium quantity, and the price OF at which it is sold can be called the equilibrium price.

A. Marshall considered the formation of the market price in three periods of time, where supply parameters have different dynamics. Accordingly, instantaneous, short-term and long-term equilibrium are distinguished. Depending on the equilibrium, producers of tourism products may either take no action, or adjust the variable factors of production to changed conditions, or adjust all factors of production to the changed price. The difference between supply in the long run and the short run is that in the long run each firm can expand its production and new firms can enter the industry. Such processes occur in conditions of rising prices, or the price provides excess profit. Supernormal profit is incompatible with equilibrium in an open industry. As soon as the total supply increases, prices will fall. New firms will continue to enter the industry until price returns to its normal state and every firm has a normal profit. The price may fluctuate within a short period, but in the long run it is constant.

A significant impact on the supply of tourism products shows the time-varying level of prices and profits. If the price of a tourist product is high this year, then next year its supply may increase sharply. Due to a significant increase in the supply of this tourism product, the market price may decrease, and producers will lose income. Therefore, part of the producers leave the industry, which leads to a reduction in supply next year and an increase in the level of the market price. This stimulates an increase in production next year, and so on.

Three possible options for changing the market price follow from this. In the first case, the market price in successful periods deviates farther and farther from the equilibrium price; in the second, the market price varies indefinitely around the equilibrium price within certain limits; in the third case, the market price gradually reaches equilibrium, as the variation gradually decreases.

In the long run, supply adapts to changes in demand by expanding or reducing the volume of production of a tourist product. The longer the period of time, the more precisely supply will be able to adjust to changes in demand. Thus, the normal price of the long period is formed.

The normal price is not the average price of a certain period, but the price at the end of the period in which supply has changed. Obviously, this normal price is formed under conditions of reproduction, and the price variation approaches the minimum equilibrium price P.

And yet, the only equilibrium price that can be maintained is the price at which the amount of supply and the amount of demand are equal to each other, that is, in the tourism market, this means that as many tourism products are produced as tourists require. This balance is the expression of maximum efficiency market economy tourism.

Conclusion

The tourism market is a very attractive business area. For the state, it is an additional income, for tourists it is a new experience, for professionals, the tourism market offers an interesting job with career opportunities. At the same time, the tourist market is a complex system with its own nuances and peculiarities. To successfully conduct business in the tourism market, it is necessary to have not only well-developed business management skills, but also to feel this market, predict changes in consumer demand, being content not only with “dry” numbers, but also with intuition.

The tourism market has not yet been fully explored and there is potential for further development of tourism services to potential consumers of the tourism product.

Taking into account the specifics of the modern tourist market in Russia, it should be noted that marketing research covers a set of tasks: identifying the current and future demand for tourist services in the region and the available proposals; determination of available volumes and types of tourist expenditures.

Development is of great importance regional program development of the tourism industry, based on an analysis of the demand for tourism services in a given region, which requires a large amount of information about consumers and producers of tourism services, factors affecting tourism demand, and the nature of this influence, as well as existing trends in the level of consumption, provision of on this basis, the most complete satisfaction of the needs of the population in tourist services and the most rational use of the existing tourist product.

Economists define demand as the quantity of any goods and services that people are willing and actually able to purchase at any given price in the set of possible prices in a given period of time. Thus, at any moment in time, there is a certain relationship between the market price and the quantity of goods (services) for which there is a demand.

Travel Demand to a certain tourist region (D) is a function of a person's propensity to travel and the corresponding resistance value of the connection between the starting point of the trip and the destination:
D = f (inclination, resistance).

Propensity to travel can be understood as a person's predisposition to travel and tourism, i.e. how much a person desires to travel, to which regions, as well as what types of travel he prefers. To assess a person's propensity to travel, psychological and demographic (socio-economic status) variables relating to the person, as well as the effectiveness of marketing, should be taken into account.

Resistance the same is generated by economic distance, sometimes cultural distance, too high cost of a tourist trip, poor quality of service, the effect of seasonality.

Economic distance is related to the time and monetary costs of traveling from the starting point to the Ha-value and back. The greater the economic distance, the higher the resistance (the desire of a person to stay at home) and the lower the demand. Conversely, it follows that if the travel time between the starting point and the destination and the cost of this journey are reduced, then demand will increase. So, a surge in demand occurred with the advent of large aircraft designed for transatlantic flights. This reduced the cost of travel by almost 50%. The advent of jet aircraft in 1959 and their improved modifications at the end of the 60s significantly reduced the flight time (by about 2.5 times), resulting in a huge increase in demand.

cultural distance- the degree of difference between the culture of the region from which the tourist came and the culture of the host region. The general trend is that the greater the cultural differences, the greater the resistance. But in some cases, the relationship can be reversed, for example, the demand for exotic tourism has recently increased.
In addition, the relative attractiveness of this destination will depend on the time of the year for which the vacation is planned. For a ski resort, for example, demand will be at its highest during the winter months. Resistance is minimal this season.
The magnitude of demand, its structure and dynamics are influenced by a variety of factors1: the number of buyers of a tourist product, their cash income, estimates of the prospects for future income.

1 Motivational aspects in tourism as a determinant of demand are discussed in detail in Part Two (Chapter 7).
dov, leisure budget, tourist tastes of travelers, advertising, etc.
Let's consider 4 main components of the tourist offer, having determined the relationship between the tourist offer and tourist demand.

Tourist offer- this is an ideal readiness and a real opportunity for a commodity producer to produce and put on the market a certain amount of tourist goods.
The offer of a tourist product depends on many factors: the number of tourist suppliers (accommodation, catering, entertainment, etc.); the number of firms-sellers; the level of efficiency in the production of tourist goods. moat and services; the level of scientific and technological progress; tax systems; prices for factors of production; estimates of prospects for demand and future income.
The supply components of a particular tourism region can be broken down into 4 main categories:
1) natural resources;
2) infrastructure;
3) the material and technical base of tourism, which includes: tour operators and travel agents, accommodation enterprises, catering and trade enterprises, motor transport enterprises, etc.;
4) cultural resources of hospitality.
It is advisable to consider each of these elements in more detail.

Natural resources of each tourist region, available for tourist use, form the basis of the offer. The base elements of this category include air and climate, physical features of the area (topography), flora, fauna, water resources, beaches, natural monuments, etc. The quality of natural resources must be maintained in order to maintain demand. In essence, tourism is very sensitive to the quality of the use of natural resources.

Infrastructure is underground and above-ground service facilities, including: water supply, sewerage, gas pipeline, communication system, as well as other service facilities, such as highways, airports, highways, railways, parking lots, parking lots, ports, stations, etc. Infrastructure is very important for the successful development of tourism. These structures should be appropriate for the intensity of use. For example, airport runways should be built with future use in mind. newest species jet aircraft in order to avoid expensive reconstruction later.

Material and technical base of tourism is the basis for the development of organized tourism, as it creates all the necessary conditions for providing tourists with a full range of services (accommodation, meals, transportation, excursions, etc.) - The composition of the material and technical base of tourism includes: tour operators and travel agents, accommodation enterprises, catering and trade enterprises, motor transport enterprises, tour agencies, etc.

By economic elements objects of the material and technical base are divided into fixed assets and circulating production assets (low-value and wearing items).

By type of property objects of the material and technical base are divided into their own (belonging to this tourist economic entity), rented by this entity from legal entities (for example, renting places in municipal hotels) and rented from individuals.
One of the main and most significant elements of the material and technical base of tourism are accommodation facilities.

The most popular accommodation facility among tourists is currently hotel. To date, there are more than 30 systems of classification of accommodation facilities in the world. Each country has adopted and has its own national standards. The most famous system is the stellar one. It is especially common in Europe. Despite attempts to develop unified international quality standards, there is still no unified system. In 1989, the WTO developed the document "Inter-regional harmonization of hotel classification criteria based on classification standards approved by regional commissions", which can be considered as international standard which is purely advisory in nature.
Trying to enter single system classification of accommodation facilities in Russia was implemented by the government of Moscow in 1993. The standards currently in force in Russia were introduced in 1995 simultaneously with the procedure for certification of tourist services and hotel services. Existing system applies only to hotels and motels that are classified into categories from 1 to 5 stars. Independent non-profit organizations accredited by the State Standard of the Russian Federation are directly involved in determining the category of hotels. On the territory of Russia there are about 50 of them, in Moscow - about 15. It is generally accepted that the classification of hotels in Russia is voluntary. This service is quite expensive. In such a situation, it often becomes economically unprofitable for a hotel to officially confirm the level of its service.
The average standard room price for a five-star Russian hotel is $230-280, a four-star hotel $90-150, and a three-star hotel $30-60. According to practitioners, the niche of middle-class hotels in Moscow is almost not occupied. After expensive hotels there are "rooms". There are only a few exceptions - this is the Sayany Hotel and the Molodezhny Hotel Complex.
The Moscow government has set the task of turning the city into an international tourist center and ensuring by 2005 the reception of 5 million tourists annually. The city has a tourism-sco-hotel industry, which gives the capital budget approximately 10 % income. A network of small hotels (up to 100 beds), cheaper and more comfortable, is being created, since the demand for tourist-class hotels significantly exceeds the available opportunities.
The structure of the modern market of funds is determined, along with the enterprises of the hotel industry, by the so-called unconventional, or additional accommodation facilities, which have emerged and successfully developed over the past 30-40 years. They include apartments, country houses, campsites, private room rentals, yacht accommodation, timeshare", condominium2, etc.
Even a well-developed material and technical base will be useless if the tourist does not feel welcome. Development cultural resources of hospitality is the most important factor in tourism. These resources are all the cultural wealth of the tourist area, which provides an opportunity to
Timeshare is the possession of time for rest within the framework of a club holiday. 2 Condominium - joint management of a building or group of buildings in which individual buyers can purchase individual apartments; at the same time, they become co-owners of public premises, playgrounds, recreation areas in this building.

Sti for quality service to tourists. The concept of "hospitality resources" includes courtesy, courtesy, friendliness, sincere interest, desire to serve, and other ways of expressing warmth and hospitality by tourism workers and local residents of the host region. In addition, cultural resources include fine arts, literature, history, music, drama, dance, sports, etc.
Favorable attitudes towards tourists can be created through public outreach and information programs designed for the local population.

§ 3. Economic patterns of the tourist market

All classical science proceeds from the fact that one of the basic laws of the market is the law cost, which also operates in the tourism market.

The essence of the law of value is that in commodity production the basis of the proportions of exchanged goods is determined by the market value, the value of which, in turn, is predetermined by socially necessary labor costs (ONZT). The law of value implies the formation of individual costs of labor and resources for each individual travel company and, accordingly, the formation of individual cost and individual price for a tourist product, however, the market does not recognize these individual costs and prices, but public and market ones, which are based on ONRT. In addition to ONRT, other factors, such as intra-industry competition, also influence costs and prices.
The law of value performs 3 main functions:

1. Stimulating function. Its essence lies in the fact that the law of value encourages producers in tourism to save labor, resources and capital, encourages them to increase production efficiency, reduce individual costs, and establishes uniform market prices on the market, which are based on ONRT.

2. Distribution function. The law of value, through the mechanism of market prices, encourages producers of tourist goods and services to direct their capital and resources to those areas of the market where profits are higher. This function of the law explains the fact that some of the Russian travel agencies have recently turned to the organization of expensive, but finding a certain demand among consumers, exotic tourism. Competition in this market is low, which allows firms;
set high prices and make super profits.

3. Producer differentiation function. The mechanism of market prices ruins some producers of the tourist product and enriches others. The law of value in the conditions of the tourist market acts as a kind of " invisible hand”, which guides tour operators and travel agents to their goal - obtaining personal gain, satisfying their own interests.
The actions of consumers of a tourist product are determined by the action the law of supply and demand. This law establishes a direct relationship between price and supply and an inverse relationship between price and demand. Its essence is as follows:

An increase in the market price of a tourism product, ceteris paribus, reduces the volume of demand, on the contrary, a decrease in the market price increases the amount of demand for a tourism product. At the same time, the supply of tourist goods and services increases when the price rises and decreases when the price falls. The first statement is especially true in modern conditions crisis, when prices have risen for the entire range of goods, but the main place is put forward by the cost of food and essential goods, while the cost of tourism and, accordingly, demand among our citizens fall almost to the very last position. The second statement is true, since tourism product producers are attracted by the excess profits received by some firms that operate, for example, in unique markets. So, various types of tourism are being developed in the Kuril Islands: adventure canyoning (sports climbing waterfalls and canyons); climbing the tops of volcanoes; rock climbing; fishing (in hard-to-reach isolated areas, on mountain rivers and lakes with rare species of fish), therapeutic recreation on the islands of Kunashir and Iturup. There are no analogues to such tours, not only in Russia, but, probably, in the whole world. This means that tour operators will set monopoly high prices for these trips. Other firms as far as their own.
opportunities will also try to enter this market in order to obtain high profits, and therefore, they will offer tourists their own tours of this direction.
The dependence of supply and demand on price can be represented graphically (Fig. 3.4). To do this, the price is plotted along the ordinate axis, and the amount of the tourist product offered for sale is plotted along the abscissa axis.

Rice. 3.4. Supply and demand schedule:
D - demand curve; S is the supply curve;
T - point of market equilibrium; Рт - equilibrium price;
QT - quantity of goods, at. which market equilibrium is reached

The demand curve is descending, while the supply curve is ascending. Market equilibrium is reached at the point where the supply and demand curves intersect. The price at which it occurs is called equilibrium price.

The linear nature of the demand curve is a special case. The linear approach is used in the following examples for simplicity. However, the results apply to other demand curves as well.
Russian economy has its own characteristics. In our country, unfortunately, with an increase in the price of goods in general and the tourist product in particular, the supply does not increase, but, on the contrary, decreases, therefore, the supply curve tends to go down. This phenomenon has been called the "Russian paradox". The August 1998 crisis resulted in an average of three
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multiple increase in prices, at the same time, he ruined many entrepreneurs and reduced the supply of the tourist product.
Example. Below are data on the demand for travel to Spain, sold by Russian firms, depending on the cost of the tour.

Demand data can be presented in the form of a demand curve (Fig. 3.5), where the ordinate shows the cost of the tour, and the abscissa shows the number of tourists who flew to Spain by purchasing trips from Russian companies.

Demand (tourist arrivals), thousand people
Rice. 3.5. Line graph of demand

Using the demand curve, you can determine the value of
total revenue from the sale of tourist services. Revenue defined
is calculated by multiplying the price of a tourist product by the quantity
the value of the product sold at that price.

Let's assume that the cost of a tour to Spain is $1100. From fig. 3.5 shows that tours at a given price will be purchased by 90 thousand tourists (sales revenue is shown by a shaded area under the demand curve). Thus, the total revenue from the sale of tours at a price of $1100 per tour will be:
$1100 x 90 thousand people = $99 million
For the development of the tourism industry in general and tourism firms in particular, it is important to know the rate of change of three economic quantities: prices, supply and demand. This is where the concept of “elasticity of demand” comes into play.

Price elasticity of demand shows by how many percent the demand for a given product changes if its price changes by 1%. If this indicator is greater than 1, then demand for price will be elastic; if this indicator is less than 1, then demand for price will be inelastic.
Price elasticity of demand is calculated by the formula

where AQ is the percentage of growth in the volume of purchased goods Q; AP is the percentage drop in price P.

Returning to the demand curve in Fig. 3.5, you can calculate the price elasticity of demand at different price levels:

where indexes 1 and 0 mean respectively new and base prices and the number of tours sold. Using this formula and the demand values, given that the number of consumers increased from 60 thousand to 80 thousand due to the price decrease, we get

An elasticity of -2.329 means that if the price fell by 10%, then the demand for tours to Spain would increase by 23.29%.

(-10% x -2.329). Usually, for simplicity, the minus sign is omitted, using the absolute value of elasticity.
It is obvious that the price elasticity of demand is different on different parts of the demand curve. The absolute value of elasticity is lower at high prices and higher at low prices for a tourism product.
As shown in fig. 3.6, three sections can be distinguished on the demand curve: where the elasticity is greater than 1, equal to 1 and less than 1. Demand is elastic above the price level RA and inelastic below the price level RA.

Rice. 3.6. Demand curve and elasticity
Price elasticity and total revenue from the sale of a tourist product are directly dependent, since price elasticity of demand characterizes the degree of dependence of the Volume of purchased goods Q on fluctuations in market prices P.
With elastic demand, when price elasticity is greater than 1, total revenue (P x Q) increases faster compared to the rate of price reduction. When demand is elastic a fall in price will lead to a simultaneous increase in demand and an increase in sales volumes, and therefore will result in a higher total revenue. And if the price rose, then the total revenue would fall, since with elastic demand, an increase in prices is accompanied by an even greater drop in demand and a decrease in sales.

On the contrary, with inelastic demand falling prices reduce total revenue (total revenue increases at a slower rate compared to the rate of price decline).
If elasticity is 1, then the rate of change in prices and total revenue is adequate. Tab. 3.1 summarizes all these relationships.
The conclusion from the above is obvious. First, one can judge the elasticity of demand only by knowing changes in prices and volumes of demand. Second, raising prices cannot be profitable and beneficial with elastic demand, since total income decreases in the same way as the number of customers. Similarly, if demand is inelastic, then it is advisable not to lower prices, since this will be followed by a decrease in income, and there will be more customers.
In Russia, unlike many other countries, demand is not price elastic, i.e., according to statistics, prices grow at a faster rate than the demand for travel services decreases. This is partly due to the accelerated materialization of money into goods and tourism services due to inflation and the unpredictability of the economic situation in our country. Travel agents often hear a phrase from customers who come to them, the meaning of which boils down to the following: “Who knows what will happen tomorrow? I’m going to relax and have fun, while there is money, at least there will be something to remember. ”
So, a change in price causes a change in quantity demanded. But there are also non-price determinants of demand, which include: the level of income of consumers of tourism goods and services, the number of consumers, the quality of services, fashion and tastes. They also affect demand.
Consider the income elasticity of demand, since income growth has an important effect on increasing the demand for tourism products at any given price. Thus, the income of potential consumers and demand are directly dependent.

Income elasticity of demand is the sensitivity of demand to changes in consumer income. It is defined as the percentage change in income at constant prices.

The effect of change in income is graphically reflected in fig. 3.7, where Do (Yo) is the demand curve for
travel at income level Y0. If the level of income rises from Y0 to Yi, then the volumes
demand will also increase. This means that the entire demand curve shifts to the right. At a certain
price of RA, the number of tours for which there is a demand was originally Q0 (on the demand curve Do
(Yo)). With an increase in income to Yi, demand at the same price level RA increases to Qi (on the curve
demand Di (Yi)).

Qo
Demand Q

Rice. 3.7. Income elasticity of tourism demand
The income elasticity of demand from the definition can be expressed by the following equation:
AY / Y "-" (Y,-Y „) / Y „ where AQ is the change in the volume of demand Q for tours; DU - change in income Y.
The income elasticity of demand can vary from zero to infinity. When income elasticity is between zero and one, demand is assumed to be income inelastic, that is, regardless of the change in income, demand will remain more or less stable. If elasticity is greater than one, then demand is income elastic and this means that as household or market segment income rises and travel prices remain constant, the demand for tours will increase. Elasticity can be equal to unity.
Low quality goods are an exception to this rule. In this case, there is no direct relationship between income and the quantity of products for which there is demand.

According to Engel's law, with an increase in income, that part of it that is spent on essential goods decreases, and the share of spending on luxury goods and spiritual development increases (this also includes tourism).

Goods can be divided into three groups: 1) goods lower rank- mainly food, which provide a minimum physical existence; 2) goods normal quality- some food and industrial goods; 3) high quality, especially fashionable goods and rarities. With an increase in income, the demand for goods of the first group first increases, then stabilizes, and then begins to decline; demand for goods of the second group first grows, then stabilizes, and then begins to grow again; demand for goods of the third group rises steeply at first, and then stabilizes.
Tourism is essentially a good quality product, although certain segments of it have the characteristics of low quality goods. Therefore, it is assumed that a family whose income has increased travels more. At the same time, this family can now relax in a hotel instead of camping, as before, or travel by plane instead of land transport. So camping and ground transport in this case can be considered goods of lower quality, since the increase in income has led to a decrease in demand for them. At the same time, the volume of tourism has increased, and consequently, tourism is a commodity of normal or superior quality.

AT general tourism is considered income elastic (bu > 1). It is associated with optional (discretionary) spending, and is therefore highly affected by changes in consumer income. Tourism is one of the first items of expenditure to decline as income decreases and often increase by a larger proportion as income rises. However, there is an opinion that tourism is income inelastic (Bu< 1), по крайней мере в процветающих странах. Для населения Швеции, например, ежегодный отдых - это неотъемлемая часть семейного календаря. В случае, если family income decreased significantly, the Swedes will sacrifice other benefits in order to afford to travel for recreational purposes. Obviously, in this case, income elasticity decreases as the wealth of the nation increases. But there is not enough evidence to argue that tourism demand is income inelastic (even in Sweden). In fact, a significant proportion of empirical estimates of income elasticity have yielded values much greater than unity. It means that tourist demand is income elastic.

Each consumer is influenced by the tastes and preferences of other consumers. There are three typical forms of influence of surrounding people on the consumer, which give rise to three effects in the behavior of the buyer:
1) the effect of joining the majority;
2) snob effect;
3) the effect of prestigious consumption (the Veblen effect). - Of particular importance now acquires attachment effect
to the majority when the consumer tends to buy what everyone buys. There is a belief that all civilized people are tourists. Therefore, people who have not previously traveled seek to fill this gap so as not to remain “black sheep”. It should be noted that in post-crisis conditions this effect contributes to the development domestic tourism, since tourism has become an integral part of the lives of most people, and foreign tourist trips have become inaccessible to many.

snob effect means that the consumer of the tourism product wants to be different from the majority. A snob buyer will never buy what others buy. Here, too, dependence on others takes place, but it has the opposite direction.

Veblen effect is the effect of prestigious or conspicuous consumption. It is believed that certain products are attractive to people who buy in order to impress others. In tourism, especially expensive novelties of the tourist market - survival tours - can serve as examples. Prices and demand for them are directly dependent on each other.
AT tourism industry there is a very small group of consumers who have practically no restrictions either in money or in time. They are representatives of the "idle" social stratum whose demand patterns have been explored American economist and sociologist Veblen. The mechanism of prestigious consumption is based on the fact that the consumer is guided not real price, but the prestigious, not the real utility of the good, but the ostentatious one. And if an increase in the price of a product is perceived by the representatives of the “idle class” as an increase in quality, then both demand and consumption will increase along with an increase in prices. The Veblen effect operates in the most expensive hotels, resort areas, etc. Due to high prices, there is some guarantee that wealthy clients of these privileged vacation spots will associate with people of the same social class there.
Demand is strongly influenced by supply and limited by it. When using demand indicators in the planning process, supply aspects must also be taken into account.
The exchange of demand for supply in the tourist market means the exchange of tourist money for a tourist product. With such an exchange, on the one hand, the interests of a particular producer (seller) and a particular consumer are satisfied, and on the other hand, conditions are created for expanded reproduction. This process depends on the price of the tourist product.
There is a rule: if demand exceeds supply, prices rise, but if supply exceeds demand, prices decrease (Fig. 3.8).

Rice. 3.8. Dependence of price on demand

Consider the different levels of supply that a tourist region can provide in accordance with the seasonally changing demand for a tourist product.
Seasonality is understood as a stable pattern of intra-annual dynamics of tourist demand, which manifests itself in intra-annual increases or decreases in the levels of travel demand over a number of years.
Tourism is a service industry, and services cannot be stored, which is why demand peaks and falls throughout the year. Every effort must be made in the tourism industry to minimize seasonal fluctuations in demand. There is a real possibility of influencing the seasonal unevenness of demand in tourism. The graphs below illustrate various options offers of accommodation facilities and other components of the offer in accordance with the levels of demand for tours to a particular tourist region that change during the year.
So, in fig. 3.9a shows the demand for a particular tourist destination. If no action is taken to stabilize demand, then three possible levels of supply can be identified. On fig. 3.9.6 the level of supply is set in such a way that the demand in the "high" season is fully satisfied. This assumes that tourists coming to the tourist area during the peak season will be comfortably accommodated, there will be no overload of hotels and facilities. At the same time, during the "low" season, the region will suffer from extremely low levels of hotel occupancy, which will obviously affect profitability. On the other hand, if the supply is maintained at a low level (Fig. 3.9, c), then the entire material base of tourism will be so loaded that it will reduce the flow of those who want to relax in this tourist region. Tourists will not be satisfied, and the future of this tourist area will be very doubtful.
If, however, the supply is fixed between the levels of demand in the "high" and "low" seasons (Fig. 3.9, d), i.e., to find the average value, then the problem is somewhat mitigated. However, this will result in very low hotel occupancy during periods of low demand, and overcrowding during peak periods, neither of which is desirable.
To maximize customer satisfaction and year-round operation of equipment and facilities, certain actions must be taken. There are two possible strategies in such situations.
1. Multipurpose use. This strategy includes a combination of various aspects that attract tourists to the "you-

Rice. 3.9. Fluctuating levels of supply and demand throughout the year during the low season, which support tourist demand for travel to the region during the low season. The more versatile the resources of an area, the greater the likelihood of success, as they can be used all year round. In fact, the peak season in the region is being extended. The extension of the main tourist season has a strong impact on the efficiency of the travel company: firstly, a decrease in the load of the material and technical base leads to direct losses in the main activities of the travel company; secondly, fuller employment of the population is ensured and unemployment is eliminated; thirdly, the level of use of fixed assets in other sectors is increasing: transport, food, public utilities, etc.; fourthly, natural resources are used more rationally. Festivals, carnivals, conferences, congresses, sporting events organized and promoted during the "low" season are also examples of a multi-use strategy.

2. Price differentiation. This strategy involves creating new markets during the low season, using price cuts as a powerful tool to divert interest from high season tourism in order to increase off-season demand.
Tourism promotion campaigns and improved marketing can also influence already established demand patterns.
The importance of increasing off-season demand, and hence operating levels, is reinforced by the fact that in the tourism industry, fixed costs are quite high compared to operating (variable) costs. This means that even a small increase in total annual revenue will cause a proportionately larger increase in profits. Thanks to those tourists who switch to off-season tours due to more affordable prices, demand in the “high” season may decrease slightly (Fig. 3.10, a). However, this decrease will be minimal. Generally, when off-season demand is supported by a multi-use strategy, it does not affect peak season demand in any way. Therefore, the total demand during the year increases significantly (Fig. 3.10.6).
In addition to the considered strategies, some trends help to balance demand in the "low" and "high" seasons.
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Figure 3.10. Reducing the influence of seasonality through
price differentiation (a) and multi-use strategies (b>
(solid line - original demand curve; dotted line - demand curve changed due to the application of one of the strategies)

Resistance the same is generated by economic distance, sometimes cultural distance, too high cost of a tourist trip, poor quality of service, the effect of seasonality.

Infrastructure is underground and above-ground service facilities, including: water supply, sewerage, gas pipeline, communication system, as well as other service facilities, such as highways, airports, highways, railways, parking lots, parking lots, ports, stations, etc. Infrastructure is very important for the successful development of tourism. These structures should be appropriate for the intensity of use. For example, airport runways should be built to accommodate the latest types of jet aircraft in the future so that costly refurbishments do not have to be made later.

By economic elements objects of the material and technical base are divided into fixed assets and circulating production assets (low-value and wearing items).

The most popular accommodation facility among tourists is currently hotel. To date, there are more than 30 systems of classification of accommodation facilities in the world. Each country has adopted and has its own national standards. The most famous system is the stellar one. It is especially common in Europe. Despite attempts to develop unified international quality standards, there is still no unified system. In 1989, the WTO developed the document "Interregional Harmonization of Hotel Classification Criteria Based on Classification Standards Approved by Regional Commissions", which can be considered as an international standard that is purely advisory in nature.
An attempt to introduce a unified classification system for accommodation facilities in Russia was implemented by the Moscow government in 1993. The standards currently in force in Russia were introduced in 1995 simultaneously with the procedure for certification of tourist services and hotel services. The current system applies only to hotels and motels, which are classified into categories from 1 to 5 stars. Independent non-profit organizations accredited by the State Standard of the Russian Federation are directly involved in determining the category of hotels. On the territory of Russia there are about 50 of them, in Moscow - about 15. It is generally accepted that the classification of hotels in Russia is voluntary. This service is quite expensive. In such a situation, it often becomes economically unprofitable for a hotel to officially confirm the level of its service.
The average standard room price for a five-star Russian hotel is $230-280, a four-star hotel $90-150, and a three-star hotel $30-60. According to practitioners, the niche of middle-class hotels in Moscow is almost not occupied. After expensive hotels there are "rooms". There are only a few exceptions - this is the Sayany Hotel and the Molodezhny Hotel Complex.
The Moscow government has set the task of turning the city into an international tourist center and ensuring by 2005 the reception of 5 million tourists annually. The city has a tourism-sco-hotel industry, which gives the capital budget approximately 10 % income. A network of small hotels (up to 100 beds), cheaper and more comfortable, is being created, since the demand for tourist-class hotels significantly exceeds the available opportunities.
The structure of the modern market of funds is determined, along with the enterprises of the hotel industry, by the so-called unconventional, or additional accommodation facilities, which have emerged and successfully developed over the past 30-40 years. These include apartments, holiday homes, campsites, private room rentals, yacht accommodation, timeshare", condominium2, etc.
Even a well-developed material and technical base will be useless if the tourist does not feel welcome. Development cultural resources of hospitality is the most important factor in tourism. These resources are all the cultural wealth of the tourist area, which provides an opportunity to
Timeshare is the possession of time for rest within the framework of a club holiday. 2 Condominium - joint management of a building or group of buildings in which individual buyers can purchase individual apartments; at the same time, they become co-owners of public premises, playgrounds, recreation areas in this building.