High the developed countries, how are they distinguished from the total number of states? How to determine whether a particular state can be called highly developed?
International statistical services use a special indicator called the HDI (Human Development Index) to rank countries. It is he who is the main criterion for determining the level of development of the country. Depending on its indicator, the level of development of the state can be characterized from "low" to "very high". Most highly developed countries are those whose human development index is close to the score of 1.
The value of the HDI depends on several factors. Such indicators as life expectancy, level of education, quality of life, well-being of children, equipment and level of health care, economic well-being and simply human happiness of the population are evaluated. The calculation formulas use all of these variables as factors. Based on the data obtained, the top ten best countries for human life are determined. Critics (especially from those countries that did not make it into the top ten) consider the HDI assessment to be inaccurate and vague. However, after reading the top list of ten highly developed countries, every sane person will understand that the error, if any, is very small.
Highly developed countries Top 10
1.Norway
Score: 0.943
The Kingdom of Norway is a country that has been ruled by monarchs for a long time, and which can be proud of its excellent level of education and impressively low unemployment. This country, the first of all states, in 1163 officially proclaimed the right to inherit the throne. Much later, already in 1814, a constitutional monarchy was proclaimed in the country.
The average life expectancy of Norwegians is 80.2 years, and there are simply no people living below the poverty line in the state. Norway became one of the main founding countries of NATO, but the country rejected the proposal to join the EU. Despite this fact, Norway still maintains friendly neighborly relations with all European powers. In addition, Norway has become one of the sponsors (in addition to being considered one of the founders) of the UN, it is also a leading member of the OECD and the WTO. The kingdom is rich, it owns the world's largest reserves of oil, gas, timber, various minerals, fresh water, and seafood. Norway has received universal international recognition for the development of world health, the improvement of the advanced foundations of the education system, and the improvement of social security systems for citizens. It is thanks to these factors that the Kingdom of Norway deservedly takes the honorable first place in the ranking of highly developed countries compiled by the UN.
2.Australia
Score: 0.929
In terms of economic development, Australia ranks only 13th in the world ranking (its GDP is $ 918,978,000,000) and 5th in per capita income ($ 40,836). In Australia, the form of government is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. This country occupies a leading place in the ranking in terms of quality of life: happy people live, there is quality healthcare and a good education system (100% literacy and a large percentage educational institutions per population). It is important for every person that the rights and freedoms of citizens are respected in this country: full protection of human rights, economic and civil freedom.
22.7 million residents of the state are satisfied with a stable government that protects the interests of its citizens, peace and sustainable development of the state, environmental protection measures, life expectancy (81.2 years). In addition, Australians are pleased that Australia is a fantastically popular country to visit: tourists from all over the world flock here to get in touch with the wild, protected by people, nature and see beautiful cities such as Sydney.
3. Most highly developed countries: Netherlands
Score: 0.910
The Netherlands (the more popular but officially incorrect name Holland) is nominally ruled by a monarch (King Willem-Alexander), but, in fact, the state is governed by a democratic parliament. Over the years of development, the Netherlands has been able to achieve high rates of education and literacy, with a virtual absence of the poor and unemployment. The Netherlands plays a leading role in the activities of the WTO, EU, OECD and NATO. The state is often referred to as the "legal capital of the world", as it is home to the main legal instances of the five courts. international systems. The state GDP is impressive ($832.160 billion), which in terms of per inhabitant corresponds to $49,950. According to a survey conducted in 2011, 16,700,000 people live in the Netherlands who consider themselves happy people. Holland is a country with a stable economy, honest government, low taxes and amazing cities (the capital city of Amsterdam is an example). People here live a full, healthy and happy life, its average duration is 79.8 years.
4.United States of America
Score: 0.910
America has come a long way since 1776, when, after the victory over the British in the American Revolution, a new state appeared. Today, having overcome many difficulties (civil war, the Great Depression, participation in world wars), the United States has become the most influential state on the planet. The states have the largest GDP ($15 trillion, which equals $48,147 per capita). The United States is one of the world's major commodity importers and exporters. The USA is a very multinational state, for example, in California, out of almost 40 million inhabitants, 50% of the total number are from Asia, Latin America and Africa.
But in terms of human happiness in the United States, everything is not particularly rosy, here the States are losing points a lot. Of the 315 million people in the country's population, 15% are considered poor, unemployment reaches an average of 9% (and in some states it reaches 14%). Experts claim that American system education lags far behind similar systems in most developed countries of the world. The US is also losing points in health care, as although life expectancy is relatively high at 79 years, obesity is skyrocketing. This problem exists in 33% of the adult population, among children the figures are almost the same. In addition, for many years America has a huge debt to other states.
5. New Zealand
Score: 0.908
Geographically, New Zealand is located on a remote small group of islands. Thus, the state can be proud of the stunning landscapes and the free life of animals. To admire the amazing flora and fauna of these places, many tourists visit the country every year. Although New Zealand is governed by parliament, the head of state is the monarch, Elizabeth II. The country has excellent indicators in terms of living standards and happiness of citizens. This state is an active supporter of peace, a protector of the environment and animals. Zealand's GDP is $157.877 trillion ($35,374 per person). The population of the island state is about 4.3 million people. Experts praise the education, literacy and sanitary standards of the country. Perhaps this explains the significant life expectancy (average 80.2 years). In addition to the beauty of nature in New Zealand, there is something to admire. For example, magnificent modern cities, such as Wellington.
6.Canada
Score: 0.908
In terms of land area, Canada is the second country in the world after Russia. The country's parliamentary democracy coexists perfectly with a constitutional monarchy. Even this country has two anthem - "Oh Canada" and "God Save the Queen." Economically, the country is well developed (per capita GDP is $51,147 with a total GDP of $1,758 billion). The population of Canada is considered one of the most educated and intellectual in the world. This is supported by the fact that most Canadians speak two or even three languages. Thanks to a developed and well-functioning healthcare system, the average life expectancy of Canadians is at around 80.7 years. Taxes in the country are low, and the country has approximately 34.7 million inhabitants. Many tourists visit the country every year to look at Niagara Falls or visit the capital Ottawa and the ancient city of Quebec.
7. Ireland
Score: 0.908
Ireland, which is governed by a parliamentary democracy, has only 4.5 million inhabitants. The Irish literacy rate is high (99%), life expectancy is estimated at an average of 78.9 years. GDP – $203.89 trillion ($45,497 per person) The state stands guard over the rights and freedoms of its citizens. Ireland was hit hard by the economic crisis that began in 2008. The country has accumulated huge debts, however, the country is successfully cooperating with the leading EU states (France and Germany) and is successfully moving forward in solving this problem.
8. Liechtenstein
Score: 0.905
The small Principality of Liechtenstein provides its citizens with a decent, comfortable and joyful life. This country is one of the least populated countries in the world. For every person in the population of 35,000, there is a high GDP ($141,000). At the same time, the country has many zero indicators: zero poverty, zero unemployment and zero public debt. The Principality is famous for its very low taxes. If you ever feel like making an exciting trip to Europe, then go to Liechtenstein. There you can explore the capital of the Grand Duchy of Vaduz and visit the majestic Castle, which has been the home of the princely family for many years, as well as chat with someone from the 5100 inhabitants of the glorious cozy city.
9.Germany
Score: 0.905
Germany is one of the most economically developed European countries. A high level of education ensured 100% literacy of the German population, and 82.2 million people live in the country.
German advanced technology, especially in the automotive industry, has proven itself throughout the world. German cars of various brands (Volkswagen, Mercedes, BMW) are popular due to the reliability of their design and build quality, which was made possible by the use of a highly skilled workforce. The life expectancy of Germans is 79.4 years. The country's GDP is $3.5 trillion, which is $40,631 per capita. Despite the fact that unemployment in the Federal Republic of Germany takes place (it is approximately 7%), the level of poverty is extremely low.
10. Sweden
Score: 0.904
The Kingdom of Sweden, with its capital Stockholm and a population of 9.3 million people, is an economically stable European state. A small territory (the size of the country is comparable to the US state of California) did not prevent the state from becoming financially strong and independent. The Swedes are among the wealthiest ($35,876 GDP per person) and the happiest people on the planet. In addition to economic stability, liberal Sweden is characterized by environmental sustainability, a significant life expectancy (80.9 years), a high level of health care and education.
Developed countries are characterized by a high standard of living of the population. Developed countries tend to have a large stock of produced capital and a population that is mostly engaged in highly specialized activities. About 15% of the world's population lives in this group of countries. Developed countries are also called industrialized countries or industrialized countries.
Developed countries typically include the 24 high-income industrialized countries of North America, Western Europe and the Pacific. Among the industrial countries, the countries of the so-called Group 7 Big "7" play the most significant role: the USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, Great Britain, Italy, France
As economically developed countries, the International Monetary Fund singles out the states:
Countries qualifying by the World Bank and the IMF as countries with developed economies in the late XX - early XXI centuries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA.
The more complete group of developed countries also includes Andorra, Bermuda, Faroe Islands, Vatican City, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino.
Among the main features of developed countries, it is advisable to highlight the following:
1.GDP per capita averages about 20 thousand dollars and is constantly growing. This determines the high level of consumption and investment and the standard of living of the population as a whole. The social support is the “middle class”, which shares the values and basic foundations of society.
2. The sectoral structure of the economies of developed countries is evolving towards the dominance of industry and a pronounced trend towards the transformation of the industrial economy into a post-industrial one. The service sector is rapidly developing, and it is the leader in terms of the share of the population employed in it. Scientific and technological progress has a significant impact on economic growth and the structure of the economy.
3. The business structure of developed countries is heterogeneous. The leading role in the economy belongs to powerful concerns - TNCs (transnational corporations). The exception is a group of some small European countries where there are no world-class TNCs. However, the economies of developed countries are also characterized by the widespread use of medium and small businesses as a factor in economic and social stability. This business employs up to 2/3 of the economically active population. In many countries, small business provides up to 80% of new jobs and affects the sectoral structure of the economy.
The economic mechanism of developed countries includes three levels: spontaneous market, corporate and state. It corresponds to a developed system of market relations and diversified methods state regulation. Their combination determines flexibility, quick adaptability to changing conditions of reproduction and, in general, high efficiency of economic activity.
4. The state of developed countries is an active participant in economic activity. The goals of state regulation are the formation of the most favorable conditions for the self-growth of capital and the maintenance of the socio-economic stability of society. The most important means of state regulation are administrative and legal (developed systems of economic law), fiscal (state budget funds and funds social insurance), monetary and public property. The general trend since the early 1960s has been to reduce the role of state property from an average of 9% to 7% of GDP. Moreover, it is concentrated mainly in the infrastructure sector. Differences between countries in terms of the degree of state regulation are determined by the intensity of the redistributive functions of the state through its finances: most intensively in Western Europe, to a lesser extent in the USA and Japan.
5. The economies of developed countries are characterized by openness to the world economy and liberal organization of the foreign trade regime. Leadership in world production determines their leading role in world trade, international capital flows, and international monetary and settlement relations. In the field of international labor migration, developed countries act as hosts.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Developing countries include about 150 countries and territories, which together occupy more than half of the earth's land area and concentrate about 3/5 of the world's population. On the political map of the world, these countries cover a vast belt stretching in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania to the north and especially to the south of the equator. Some of them (Iran, Thailand, Ethiopia, Egypt, Latin American countries and others) had independence long before the Second World War. But most won it in the post-war period.
The world of developing countries (when there was a division into the world socialist and capitalist systems, it was usually called the "third world") is internally very heterogeneous, and this makes it difficult to typology the countries included in it. Nevertheless, at least as a first approximation, developing countries can be divided into the following six subgroups.
the first of them form the so-called key countries- India, Brazil, China and Mexico, which have a very large natural, human and economic potential and in many respects are leaders in the developing world.
These three countries produce almost as much industrial output as all other developing countries combined. But GDP per capita in them is much lower than in economically developed countries, and in India, for example, it is $350.
In second group includes some developing countries that have also achieved a relatively high level of social economic development and having per capita GDP exceeding $1,000. Most of these countries are in Latin America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, etc.), but they are also found in Asia and North Africa.
To third subgroup can be attributed to the so-called new industrial countries. In the 80s and 90s. they achieved such a leap in their development that they received the nickname "Asian tigers" or "Asian dragons." The "first echelon" or "first wave" of such countries includes the already mentioned Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. And the "second tier" usually include Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia.
fourth subgroup form oil-exporting countries, in which, thanks to the influx of "petrodollars", per capita GDP reaches 10, or even 20 thousand dollars. These are, first of all, the countries of the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Iran), as well as Libya, Brunei and some other countries.
AT fifth, the largest subgroup includes most of the "classic" developing countries. These are countries lagging behind in their development, with a per capita GDP of less than $1,000 per year. They are dominated by a rather backward mixed economy with strong feudal remnants. Most of these countries are in Africa, but they are also found in Asia and Latin America.
the sixth subgroup form approximately 40 countries (with general population more than 600 million people), which, according to the UN classification, belong to the least developed countries (sometimes they are called the "fourth world"). They are dominated by consumer Agriculture, there is almost no manufacturing industry, 2/3 of the adult population is illiterate, and the per capita GDP is only 100-300 dollars a year. Last place even among them is occupied by Mozambique with per capita GDP of $80 per year (or a little over 20 cents per day!).
Table 12. The world's least developed countries
| Asia | Oceania | Latin America | Africa | Afghanistan | Vanuatu | Haiti | Benin | Lesotho | Tanzania |
| Bangladesh | Kiribati | Botswana | Mauritania | Togo | |
| Butane | Zap. Samoa | Burkina Faso | Malawi | Uganda | |
| Yemen | Tuvalu | Burundi | Mali | CAR | |
| Laos | Gambia | Mozambique | Chad | ||
| Maldives | Guinea | Niger | Eq. Guinea | ||
| Myanmar | Guinea-Bissau | Rwanda | Ethiopia | ||
| Nepal | Djibouti | Sao Tome and Principe | Sierra Leone | ||
| Cape Verde | Somalia | Sudan | |||
| Comoros | |||||
Countries with transition economy. Inclusion in this two-term typology of post-socialist countries with economies in transition presents certain difficulties. According to their socio-economic indicators, most countries of Eastern Europe(Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, etc.), as well as the Baltic countries, of course, are economically developed. Among the CIS countries there are both economically developed ones (Russia, which together with the leading Western countries forms the G8 countries of the world, Ukraine, etc.), and countries that occupy, as it were, an intermediate position between developed and developing countries.
The same contradictory position is occupied in this typology by China, which has its own characteristics both in the political system (a socialist country) and in socio-economic development. Recently, China, which has been developing at a very high pace, has become a truly great power not only in world politics, but also in the world economy. But per capita GDP in this country with a huge population is only $500.
Table 13. The share of certain groups of countries in the world population, world GDP and world exports of goods and services in 2000
| world population | World GDP * | World export | |
| industrialized countries | 15,4 | 57,1 | 75,7 |
| G7 countries | 11,5 | 45,4 | 47,7 |
| EU | 6,2 | 20 | 36 |
| Developing countries | 77,9 | 37 | 20 |
| Africa | 12,3 | 3,2 | 2,1 |
| Asia | 57,1 | 25,5 | 13,4 |
| Latin America | 8,5 | 8,3 | 4,5 |
| Countries with economies in transition | 6,7 | 5,9 | 4,3 |
| CIS | 4,8 | 3,6 | 2,2 |
| CEE | 1,9 | 2,3 | 2,1 |
| Reference: | 6100 million people | 44550 billion dollars | $7650 billion |
| *According to purchasing power parity of currencies | |||
Tasks and tests on the topic "Developing countries"
- Countries of the world - Population of the Earth Grade 7
Lessons: 6 Assignments: 9
- Population and countries of South America - South America Grade 7
Lessons: 4 Assignments: 10 Tests: 1
- Population and countries of North America - North America Grade 7
Basic concepts: Territory and border of the state, economic zone, sovereign state, dependent territories, republic (presidential and parliamentary), monarchy (absolute, including theocratic, constitutional), federal and unitary state, confederation, gross domestic product (GDP), human index development (HDI), developed countries, G7 countries of the West, developing countries, NIS countries, key countries, oil exporting countries, least developed countries; political geography, geopolitics, GWP of a country (region), UN, NATO, EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, APR, OPEC.Skills: Be able to classify countries according to various criteria, give a brief description of groups and subgroups of countries modern world, evaluate political geographical position countries according to the plan, identify positive and negative features, note the change in GWP over time, use the most important economic and social indicators to characterize (GDP, GDP per capita, human development index, etc.) the country. Identify the most important changes on the political map of the world, explain the causes and predict the consequences of such changes.
In the UN materials, all the diversity of the countries of the world is reduced to highlighting more developed countries and less developed countries. The classification considers 204 countries and territories - all UN member countries, as well as other countries and territories with a population of more than 150 thousand people. To the number more developed countries included 47 countries, among less developed- 157 (including 50 least developed countries).
more developed countries. These countries are located in Europe, Anglo-Saxon America (developed regions), they also include Japan in Asia, Australia and New Zealand.
The more developed countries also include Russia and the CIS member countries located in Europe, while the Asian republics belong to the less developed countries.
The location of regions with a predominance of countries of different levels of development has a clearly defined geographical character. Developed countries, with rare exceptions, are located north of 30 ° north latitude, less developed countries - to the south. This pattern has been noticed not only by geographers, in the works of economists it is called the "North-South" problem or "Geographical position of more developed and less developed countries"> center-periphery".
less developed countries. These countries are extremely different. These include Brazil and Tuvalu, India and Somalia, Tajikistan and the United Arab Emirates. To varying degrees, they share such common features as a predominantly agrarian and raw material specialization of the economy, an unequal position in the world economy, dependence on foreign capital, the most acute manifestations of global problems of mankind - demographic, food, environmental, as well as a low standard of living for most of the population. Moreover, some of the less developed countries, such as oil-producing Kuwait and Brunei, are approaching more developed countries in terms of GNI per capita.
The division of countries into more developed and less developed only in a general way characterizes the differences between them.
1. Three groups of countries: developed, developing and with economies in transition
2. Group of developed countries
3. Group of developing countries
4. Group of countries with economies in transition
Based on various criteria in the world economy, a certain number of subsystems are distinguished. The largest subsystems, or megasystems, are three groups of national economies:
1) industrialized countries;
2) countries in transition;
3) developing countries.
The group of developed (industrialized countries, industrial) includes states with a high level of socio-economic development, the predominant predominance of a market economy. GDP per capita PPP is at least $12,000 PPP.
The number of developed countries and territories, according to the International Monetary Fund, includes the United States, all countries of Western Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Israel. The UN joins them with the Republic of South Africa. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development adds Turkey and Mexico to their number, although these are most likely developing countries, but they are included in this number on a territorial basis.
Thus, about 30 countries and territories are included in the number of developed countries. Perhaps, after the official accession to the European Union of Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Estonia, these countries will also be included in the number of developed countries.
There is an opinion that Russia will also join the group of developed countries in the near future. But to do this, it needs to go a long way to transform its economy into a market one, to increase its GDP at least to the pre-reform level.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In this group of countries, the "seven" with the largest GDP (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Canada) are singled out. More than 44% of world GDP is accounted for by these countries, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) is the largest group (about 140 states located in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania). These are states with a low level of economic development, but with a market economy. Despite the rather significant number of these countries, and many of them are characterized by a large population and a large territory, they account for only 28% of world GDP.
The group of developing countries is often referred to as the third world, and it is not homogeneous. The basis of developing countries are states with a relatively modern economic structure (for example, some countries in Asia, especially Southeast, and countries in Latin America), high GDP per capita, and a high human development index. Of these, a subgroup of newly industrialized countries is distinguished, which have recently demonstrated very high rates of economic growth.
They were able to greatly reduce their backlog from developed countries. Today's new industrial countries include: in Asia - Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and others, in Latin America - Chile and other South and Central American countries.
In a special subgroup allocate countries that are exporters of oil. The backbone of this group is made up of 12 members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Underdevelopment, lack of rich mineral resources, and in some countries even access to the sea, unfavorable domestic political and social situation, military operations and simply arid climate have determined the growth in the number of countries classified as the least developed subgroup in recent decades. Currently, there are 47 of them, including 32 located in Tropical Africa, 10 in Asia, 4 in Oceania, 1 in Latin America (Haiti). The main problem of these countries is not so much backwardness and poverty, but the absence of tangible economic resources to overcome them.
This group includes states that are transitioning from an administrative-command (socialist) economy to a market economy (which is why they are often called post-socialist). This transition has been taking place since the 1980s and 1990s.
These are 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 15 countries of the former Soviet republics, as well as Mongolia, China and Vietnam (the last two countries formally continue to build socialism)
The countries with economies in transition account for about 17-18% of world GDP, including the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (without the Baltics) - less than 2%, the former Soviet republics - more than 4% (including Russia - about 3%) , China - about 12%. Within this youngest group of countries, subgroups can be distinguished.
The former Soviet republics, which are now united in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), can be combined into one subgroup. Thus, such an association leads to reforming the economies of these countries.
In another subgroup, you can combine the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic countries. These countries are characterized by a radical approach to reforms, a desire to join the EU, and a relatively high level of development for most of them.
But due to the strong lag behind the leaders of this subgroup of Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and the republics of the former Yugoslavia, it is advisable to include them in the first subgroup.
China and Vietnam can be identified as a separate subgroup. The low level of socio-economic development is currently rising rapidly.
Of the large group of countries with administrative-command economies, by the end of the 1990s. only two countries remained: North Korea and Cuba.
LECTURE No. 4. Newly industrialized countries, oil-producing countries, least developed countries. A special place for the group / leaders of the developing world: newly industrialized countries and countries - members of OPEC
In the structure of developing countries 1960-80s. 20th century are a period of global change. From their midst stand out the so-called "new industrial countries (NIS)". NIS on the basis of certain features are distinguished from the bulk of developing countries. The features that distinguish "new industrial countries" from developing countries allow us to talk about the emergence of a special "new industrial model" of development. These countries are unique examples of development for many states, both in terms of the internal dynamics of the national economy and in terms of external economic expansion. The NIS includes four Asian countries, the so-called "small dragons of Asia" - South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as the NIS of Latin America - Argentina, Brazil, Mexico. All these countries are NIS of the first wave or first generation.
Then they are followed by NIS of the next generations:
1) Malaysia, Thailand, India, Chile - the second generation;
2) Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Indonesia - the third generation;
3) Philippines, southern provinces of China - the fourth generation.
As a result, entire zones of new industrialization, poles of economic growth are emerging, extending their influence primarily to nearby regions.
The United Nations identifies the criteria by which certain states belong to the NIS:
1) the size of GDP per capita;
2) average annual growth rates;
3) the share of the manufacturing industry in GDP (it should be more than 20%);
4) the volume of exports of industrial products and their share in total exports;
5) volume of direct investments abroad.
For all these indicators, NIS not only stand out from other developing countries, but often surpass those of a number of industrialized countries.
A significant increase in the well-being of the population determines the high growth rates of NIS. Low unemployment is one of the achievement of NIS Southeast Asia. In the mid-1990s, the four "little dragons", as well as Thailand and Malaysia, were the countries with the lowest unemployment in the world. They showed a lagging level of labor productivity in comparison with industrialized countries. In the 1960s, some countries of East Asia and Latin America, NIS, took this path.
These countries actively used external sources of economic growth. These include, first of all, the free attraction of foreign capital, equipment and technology from industrialized countries.
The main reasons for the selection of NIS from other countries:
1) due to a number of reasons, some NIS ended up in the sphere of special political and economic interests of industrialized countries;
2) the development of the modern structure of the NIS economy was greatly influenced by direct investment. Direct investments in the economy of the NIS account for 42% of direct capitalist investments in developing countries. The main investor is the United States, and then Japan. Japanese investment has contributed to the industrialization of NIS and increased the competitiveness of their exports. They played a particularly prominent role in the metamorphosis of NIS into large exporters of manufacturing products. For the NIS of Asia, it is characteristic that capital rushed mainly to the manufacturing industry and the raw materials industries. In turn, the capital of Latin American NIS was directed to trade, the service sector, and the manufacturing industry. The free expansion of foreign private capital has led to the fact that in the NIS, in fact, there is not a single sector of the economy where there would be no foreign capital. The return on investment in Asian NIS significantly exceeds similar opportunities in Latin American countries;
3) "Asian" dragons were determined to accept these changes in the international economic situation and use them for their own purposes.
The following factors played a significant role in attracting transnational corporations:
1) convenient geographical location of the NIS;
2) the formation in almost all NIS of autocratic or close to such political regimes loyal to industrialized countries. Foreign investors were provided with a high degree of security guarantees for their investments;
3) such non-economic factors as diligence, diligence, discipline of the population of NIS Asia played a significant role.
All countries according to the level of economic development can be divided into three categories. Oil importers and exporters stand out in particular.
The group of countries with high per capita incomes, which are typical for industrialized countries, includes Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, and the Emirates.
The group of countries with average GDP per capita includes mainly oil-exporting countries and newly industrialized countries (these include countries whose share of manufacturing in GDP is at least 20%)
The group of oil exporters has a subgroup consisting of 19 states whose export of oil products exceeds 50%.
In these countries, the material foundation was initially created, and only then was scope given to the development of capitalist production relations. They formed the so-called rental capitalism.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in September 1960 at a conference in Baghdad (Iraq). OPEC established five oil-rich developing countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela.
These countries were subsequently joined by eight others: Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973). ), and Gabon (1975). However, two minor producers - Ecuador and Gabon - refused membership in this organization in 1992 and 1994. respectively. Thus, this OPEC unites 11 member countries. The headquarters of OPEC is located in Vienna. The Charter of the Organization was adopted in 1961 at the January conference in Caracas (Venezuela). In accordance with the 1st and 2nd articles of the Charter, Opec is a "permanent intergovernmental organization", the main tasks of which are:
1) coordination and unification of the oil policy of the participating countries and determination of the best ways (individual and collective) to protect their interests;
2) finding ways and means to ensure price stability on the world oil markets in order to eliminate harmful and undesirable price fluctuations;
3) observance of the interests of producing countries and providing them with sustainable income;
4) efficient, economically expedient and regular supply of oil to consumer countries;
5) providing investors directing their funds to the oil industry with a fair return on invested capital.
OPEC controls about half of the world's oil trade, sets the official price for crude oil, which largely determines the world price level.
The conference is the supreme body of OPEC and consists of delegations, usually headed by ministers. It usually meets in regular sessions twice a year (in March and September) and in extraordinary sessions as needed.
At the Conference, the general political line of the Organization is formed, appropriate measures are determined for its implementation; decisions are made on the admission of new members; checks and coordinates the activities of the Board of Governors, appoints members of the Board, including the Chairman of the Board of Governors and his deputy, as well as the Secretary General of OPEC; approves the budget and changes in the Charter, etc.
The Secretary General of the Organization is also the Secretary of the Conference. All decisions, with the exception of procedural matters, are taken unanimously.
The conference in its activities relies on several committees and commissions, the most important of which is the economic commission. It is designed to assist the Organization in maintaining stability in the world oil market.
The Board of Governors is the governing body of OPEC and, in terms of the nature of its functions, is comparable to the board of directors of a commercial organization. It consists of Governors appointed by the Member States and approved by the Conference for a two-year term.
The Council manages the Organization, implements the decisions of the supreme body of OPEC, forms the annual budget and submits it for approval by the Conference. He also analyzes the reports submitted by the Secretary General, draws up reports and recommendations of the Conference on current affairs and prepares the agenda of the Conferences.
The OPEC Secretariat acts as the headquarters of the Organization and (in fact) is the executive body responsible for its functioning in accordance with the provisions of the Charter and the directives of the Board of Governors. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General and consists of the Research Division, directed by the Director, the Information and Public Relations Department, the Administration and Personnel Department, and the Office of the Secretary General.
The Charter defines three categories of membership in the Organization:
1) founding member;
2) full member;
3) an associative participant.
The founding members are the five countries that founded OPEC in September 1960 in Baghdad. Full members are founding countries plus those countries whose membership has been approved by the Conference. Associate participants are those countries that, for one reason or another, do not meet the criteria for full participation, but nevertheless have been accepted by the Conference on special, separately agreed conditions.
Maximizing profits from oil exports for participants is the main goal of OPEC. Basically, reaching this goal is coupled with a choice between increasing production in the hope of selling more oil, or reducing it in order to benefit from higher prices. OPEC has periodically changed these strategies, but its share of the world market has increased since the 1970s. dropped quite a bit. At that time, the average real prices have not undergone significant changes.
At the same time, other tasks have appeared in recent years, sometimes contradicting the above. For example, Saudi Arabia has strongly lobbied for the idea of maintaining a long-term and stable level of oil prices, which would not be too high to encourage developed countries to develop and introduce alternative fuels.
The objectives of a tactical nature, solved at OPEC meetings, are to regulate oil production. And yet, at the moment, OPEC countries have not been able to develop an effective mechanism for regulating production, mainly because the members of this organization are sovereign states that have the right to pursue an independent policy in the field of oil production and its export.
Another tactical goal of the Organization in recent years has been the desire not to “frighten away” the oil markets, that is, concern for their stability and stability. For example, before announcing the results of their meetings, OPEC ministers wait until trading session oil futures in New York. And they also pay special attention to once again assuring the countries of the West and Asian NISs of OPEC's intention to conduct a constructive dialogue.
At its core, OPEC is nothing more than an international cartel of oil-rich developing countries. This follows both from the tasks formulated in its Charter (for example, observing the interests of producing countries and providing them with sustainable income; coordinating and unifying the oil policy of the participating countries and determining the best ways (individual and collective) to protect their interests), and from specifics of membership in the Organization. According to the OPEC Charter, “any other country with a significant net export of crude oil, which has fundamentally similar interests with the participating countries, can become a full member of the organization if it receives consent to join from? its full members, including the unanimous consent of the founding members.
LECTURE No. 5. Openness of the national economy. economic security
A characteristic feature of globalization is the openness of the economy. One of the leading trends in the world economic development of the post-war decades was the transition from closed national economies to an open economy.
For the first time, the definition of openness was given by the French economist M. Perbo. In his opinion, "openness, freedom of trade is the most favorable rule of the game for a leading economy."
For the normal functioning of the world economy, it is necessary in the final analysis to achieve complete freedom of trade between countries, such as is now characteristic of trade relations within each state.
Economy open- an economic system focused on maximum participation in world economic relations and in the international division of labor. Resists autarkic economic systems developing separately on the basis of self-sufficiency.
The degree of openness of the economy is characterized by such indicators as the export quota - the ratio of the value of exports to the value of gross domestic product (GDP), the volume of exports per capita, etc.
A distinctive feature of modern economic development is the outpacing growth of world trade in relation to world production. International specialization is not only beneficial to the national economy, but also contributes to an increase in world production.
At the same time, the openness of the economy does not eliminate two trends in the development of the world economy: the strengthening of the orientation of national-state economic entities towards free trade (free trade), on the one hand, and the desire to protect the domestic market (protectionism), on the other. Their combination in one proportion or another underlies the foreign economic policy of the state. A society that recognizes both the interests of consumers and its responsibility for those it harms in its pursuit of a more open trade policy must work out a compromise that avoids costly protectionism.
The advantages of an open economy are:
1) deepening the specialization and cooperation of production;
2) rational distribution of resources depending on the degree of efficiency;
3) dissemination of world experience through the system of international economic relations;
4) the growth of competition between domestic producers, stimulated by competition in the world market.
An open economy is the removal by the state of the monopoly of foreign trade, the effective application of the principle of comparative advantages and the international division of labor, the active use of various forms of joint venture, the organization of free enterprise zones.
One of the important criteria for an open economy is a country's favorable investment climate, which stimulates the inflow of capital investments, technology, and information within the framework determined by economic feasibility and international competitiveness.
An open economy presupposes a reasonable accessibility of the domestic market for the inflow of foreign capital, information and labor.
An open economy requires significant state intervention in the formation of a mechanism for its implementation at the level of reasonable sufficiency. There is no absolute openness of the economy in any country.
To characterize the degree of participation of a country in the system of international economic relations or the degree of openness of the national economy, a number of indicators are used. Among them, it is necessary to mention, first of all, export (K exp) and imported (K imp) quotas, the share of the value of exports (imports) in the value of GDP (GNP):
where Q exp.- the value of exports;
Q imp. are the value of exports and imports, respectively.
Another indicator is the volume of exports per capita (Q exp. / d.n.):
where h n.- the population of the country.
The export potential of a country is estimated by the share of manufactured products that a country can sell on the world market without harming its own economy, domestic consumption:
where E P.– export potential (the coefficient has only positive values, zero value indicates the border of export potential);
D d.n.- the maximum allowable per capita income.
The whole set of foreign trade export operations was called the “foreign trade balance of the country”, in which export operations are classified as active items, and import operations are passive. total amount exports and imports will create a balance of the country's foreign trade turnover.
The balance of foreign trade turnover forms the difference between the amount of exports and the amount of imports. The trade balance is positive if exports exceed imports and, conversely, negative if imports exceed exports. In the economic literature of the West, instead of the balance of foreign trade turnover, another term is used - "export". It can also be positive or negative, depending on whether exports dominate or vice versa.
LECTURE No. 6. The international division of labor is the basis for the development of the modern world economy
The international division of labor is the most important basic category that expresses the essence and content of international relations. Since all the countries of the world are included in one way or another in this division, its deepening is determined by the development of the productive forces, which are influenced by the latest technological revolution. Participation in the international division of labor brings additional economic benefits to countries, allowing them to meet their needs more fully and at the lowest cost.
International division of labor (MRI) is a stable concentration of production behind certain countries certain types goods, works, services. MRI determines:
1) exchange of goods and services between countries;
2) the movement of capital between countries;
3) labor force migration;
4) integration.
Specialization associated with the production of goods and services increases competitiveness.
For the development of MRI are important:
1) comparative advantage- the ability to produce goods at a lower cost;
2) public policy, depending on which not only the nature of production, but also the nature of consumption can change;
3) concentration of production- the creation of a large-scale industry, the development of mass production (orientation to the external market when creating production);
4) growing imports of the country– formation of mass consumption of raw materials, fuel. Usually mass production does not coincide with resource deposits - countries organize resource imports;
5) development of transport infrastructure.
The international division of labor is an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries. It is based on the economically advantageous specialization of the production of countries in certain types of products, leading to the mutual exchange of the results of production between them in certain ratios (quantitative and qualitative). In the modern era, the international division of labor contributes to the development of world integration processes.
MRI plays an ever-increasing role in the implementation of the processes of expanded reproduction in the countries of the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, forms the appropriate international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects. MRI does not exist without exchange, which has a special place in the internationalization of social production.
The documents adopted by the UN recognize that the international division of labor and international economic relations cannot develop spontaneously, only under the influence of the laws of competition. The market mechanism cannot automatically ensure the rational development and use of resources on the scale of the global economy.
LECTURE No. 7. International labor migration
